Какой язык самый трудный?

Делить языки на трудные и легкие ― всё равно, что делить книги на интересные и неинтерсные. У каждого такая классификация будет своя. Всё зависит от трёх основных критериев...


1. Родной язык (как известно, родной язык никогда не бывает трудным. Следовательно, все остальные языки трудны настолько, насколько сильно они отличаются от родного языка).

2. Квалификация (филологу-лингвисту даже самые трудные языки будут даваться намного легче, чем человеку, не имеющему никакого отношения к языкознанию).

3. Языковая среда (в языковой среде любым языком можно овладеть намного легче, а, главное, — быстрее, чем в языковой изоляции).

Для носителей русского языка градация трудностей будет выглядеть следующим образом:

Самыми лёгкими для них будут другие славянские языки: украинский, польский, чешский, болгарский, сербский и т.д. 

Вторую степень трудности будут представлять европейские языки, относящиеся вместе со славянскими к индоевропейской языковой семье: балтийские (литовский, латышский), германские (немецкий, английский, нидерландский, шведский и др.), романские (французский, итальянский, испанский, румынский и др.), кельтские (ирландский, валлийский и др.), индоиранские (осетинский, цыганский), другие индоевропейские языки (греческий, албанский). Причём, по мнению многих лингвистов, самыми лёгкими из неславянских языков для русскоговорящих будут испанский и итальянский языки, а английский занимает только третье место по лёгкости; замыкает этот список немецкий, французский и скандинавские языки.

Третью степень трудности будут представлять индоевропейские языки, распространённые за пределами европейского культурного ареала: армянский, иранские (персидский, курдский), индийские (хиндустани (xинди и урду), бенгальский, маратхи, панджабский, непальский, сингальский, мальдивский и т.д.). 

Четвёртую степень трудности будут представлять языки, не принадлежащие к индоевропейской языковой семье: тюркские (турецкий, азербайджанский, узбекский, якутский) и прочие алтайские (монгольский, калмыцкий, нанайский, корейский, японский), уральские (финский, эстонский, венгерский и прочие финно-угорские и самодийские языки), афразийские (семито-хамитские) (арабский, иврит, мальтийский, хауса, сомали), картвельские (грузинский), дравидские (тамильский, телугу, малаялам). Однако перечисленные выше языки ― еще не самые трудные, ибо они с индоевропейскими языками образуют так называемую ностратическую макросемью и имеют целый ряд общиx черт с индоевропейскими. 

Высшую степень трудности будут представлять языки, не являющиеся ностратическими, а потому ― совсем непохожие на европейские. Это, прежде всего, языки Северного Кавказа (абхазский, кабардинский, чеченский, аварский), так называемые изолирующие языки Юго-Восточной Азии (китайский, вьетнамский, тайский, бирманский, кxмерский и прочие китайско-тибетские и австроазиатские языки), языки «Чёрной» Африки (суахили, зулу, йоруба, яунде, волоф и т.д.), языки Океании (папуасские, полинезийские (гавайский, маори, самоанский и др.), меланезийские (фиджи и др.), австралийские (сабайгал и др.) и т.д.), языки американских индейцев (чероки, навахо, нахуатль, майя, кечуа, арауканский и др.).

Однако кроме субъективных трудностей, в любом языке встречаются еще и объективные: запутанные правила с многочисленными исключениями, отсутствие всякой логики в некоторых грамматических категориях (как, например, грамматический род неодушевленных предметов в большинстве европейских языков) и т.д. Но такие трудности в любом языке «уравновешены», так что, если в том или ином языке что-то очень трудно, что-то там обязательно должно быть очень легко. Не бывает языков, одинаково трудных во всех отношениях!!! 

И, всё же, для того, чтобы овладеть любым языком, нужно приложить определенные усилия. А главное — навсегда расстаться со стереотипом, будто бы во всеx языкаx всё должно быть выражено точно так же, как и в твоем родном. Каждый язык — это своя автономная знаковая система, свой способ отображения объективной реальности. Разные языки — это разные xудожники, которые отображают одну и ту же действительность, но каждый делает это в своей оригинальной манере, используя свой арсенал способов выражения, акцентируя внимание на одниx деталяx, и упуская из виду другие.

Факты:

1. Самый сложный язык для изучения – баскский, он настолько сложный, что во время Второй мировой войны этот язык применяли как шифр.

2. Досчитать до трех на нивхском языке (распространен в северной части о. Сахалин) — непростая задача. Нивхские числительные звучат по-разному в зависимости от того, что считают: лыжи, лодки или связки вяленой рыбы. Всего в языке 26 способов счета.

3. В табасаранском языке (один из официальных языков Дагестана) существует 48 падежей существительных.

4. В эскимосском языке насчитывается 63 формы настоящего времени и 252 окончания простых существительных.

5. Чтобы научиться квалифицированно переводить тексты на санскрите или писать на нем, человеку потребуется изучать его не менее 12 лет.

6. В языке североамериканского индейского племени чиппева 6 000 глагольных форм – больше, чем в любом другом языке.

7. Про абазинский язык, распространённый в Карачаево-Черкесии, говорят: не зная его с детства, овладеть им в зрелом возрасте почти невозможно. А всё из-за чрезвычайно сложной фонетики.

8. Наиболее полный словарь китайского языка содержит более 87 000 иероглифов, каждый из которых обозначает свой слог. Самым сложным является архаичный иероглиф се – «болтливый», состоящий из 64 черт, а из использующихся в настоящее время — иероглиф нан, который содержит 36 черт и означает «заложенный нос».

источник

The ATM Strikes Back

The bombardier beetle inspired the researchers of ETH Zurich.JAYVEE18 – FOTOLIA

Hot foam may soon send criminals running if they damage ATM. ETH researchers have developed a special film that triggers an intense reaction when destroyed. The idea originates from a beetle that uses a gas explosion to fend off attackers.

Its head and pronotum are usually rusty red, and its abdomen blue or shiny green: the bombardier beetle is approximately one centimetre long and common to Central Europe. At first glance, it appears harmless, but it possesses what is surely the most aggressive chemical defence system in nature. When threatened, the bombardier beetle releases a caustic spray, accompanied by a popping sound. This spray can kill ants or scare off frogs. The beetle produces the explosive agent itself when needed. Two separately stored chemicals are mixed in a reaction chamber in the beetle's abdomen. An explosion is triggered with the help of catalytic enzymes.

 “When you see how elegantly nature solves problems, you realise how deadlocked the world of technology often is,” says Wendelin Jan Stark, a professor from the ETH Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences. He and his team therefore looked to the bombardier beetle for inspiration and developed a chemical defence mechanism designed to prevent vandalism – a self-defending surface composed of several sandwich-like layers of plastic. If the surface is damaged, hot foam is sprayed in the face of the attacker. This technology could be used to prevent vandalism or protect valuable goods. “This could be used anywhere you find things that shouldn't be touched,” said Stark. In agriculture and forestry, for example, it could be used to keep animals from gnawing on trees.

Like a fuse

The researchers use plastic films with a honeycomb structure for their self-defending surface. The hollow spaces are filled with one of two chemicals: hydrogen peroxide or manganese dioxide. The two separate films are then stuck on top of each another. A layer of clear lacquer separates the two films filled with the different chemicals. When subjected to an impact, the interlayer is destroyed, causing the hydrogen peroxide and manganese dioxide to mix. This triggers a violent reaction that produces water vapour, oxygen and heat. Whereas enzymes act as catalysts in the bombardier beetle, manganese dioxide has proven to be a less expensive alternative for performing this function in the lab.

The researchers report that the product of the reaction in the film is more of a foam than a spray when compared to the beetle, as can be seen in slow motion video footage. Infrared images show that the temperature of the foam reaches 80 degrees. Just as in nature, very little mechanical energy is required in the laboratory to release a much greater amount of chemical energy – quite similar to a fuse or an electrically ignited combustion cycle in an engine.

The series of images of the destruction tests in the laboratory shows how the foam is released by the self-defending film. The infrared images show a temperature rise to 80 degrees.ETH ZÜRICH

Attacks on ATMs on the rise

The newly developed film may be particularly well suited to protecting ATMs or cash transports, write the researchers in their paper published in the Journal of Materials Chemistry A. In ATMs, banknotes are kept in cash boxes, which are exchanged regularly. The Edinburgh-based European ATM Security Team reports that the number of attacks on ATMs has increased in recent years. During the first half of 2013, more than 1,000 attacks on ATMs took place in Europe, resulting in losses of EUR 10 million.

While protective devices that can spray robbers and banknotes already exist, these are mechanical systems, explains Stark. “A small motor is set in motion when triggered by a signal from a sensor. This requires electricity, is prone to malfunctions and is expensive.” The objective of his research group is to replace complicated control systems with cleverly designed materials.

Rendering banknotes useless

Front and back of a EUR 5 banknote, dyed blue by the self-defending surface.ETH ZURICH

This is precisely the goal of the self-defending surface. To protect the cash boxes, the researchers prepare the film by adding manganese dioxide. They then add a dye along with DNA enveloped in nanoparticles. If the film is destroyed, both the foam and the dye are released, thereby rendering the cash useless. The DNA nanoparticles that are also released mark the banknotes so that their path can be traced. Laboratory experiments with 5 euro banknotes have shown that the method is effective. The researchers write that the costs are also reasonable and expect one square meter of film to cost approximately USD 40.

In a similar earlier project, ETH researchers developed a multi-layer protective envelope for seed that normally undergoes complex chemical treatment. Researchers emulated the protective mechanism of peaches and other fruit, which releases toxic hydrogen cyanide to keep the kernels from being eaten. Wheat seeds are coated with substances that also form hydrocyanic acid when they react. However, the base substances are separated from each other in different layers and react only when the seeds are bitten by a herbivore. Stark describes the successful research method as “imitating nature and realising simple ideas with high-tech methods.”

https://tinyurl.com/5n8v8xhj 

Literaturhinweise

Halter JG, Cohrs NH, Hild N, Paunescu D, Grass RN,  Stark WJ: Self-defending anti-vandalism surfaces based on mechanically triggered mixing of reactants in polymer foils. J. Mater. Chem. A, Online-Publikation 7. März 2014, DOI:external page10.1039/C3TA15326F

Halter JG, Chen WD, Hild N, Mora CA, Stoessel PR, Koehler FM, Grass RN, Stark WJ: Induced cyanogenesis from hydroxynitrile lyase and mandelonitrile on wheat with polylactic acid multilayer-coatings produces self-defending seeds, J. Mat. Chem. A, 2014, 2: 853-858, DOI: external page10.1039/C3TA14249C.

Laboratory-Grown Vaginas Implanted in Patients

A schematic of the human female reproductive system. A recent pilot study is the first to demonstrate that vaginal organs can be constructed in the lab and used successfully in humans.IMAGE CREDIT: CDC, MYSID, WIKIMEDIA COMMONS
Scientists reported yesterday (Apr. 10) the first human recipients of laboratory-grown vaginal organs. A research team led by Anthony Atala, M.D., director of Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center’s Institute for Regenerative Medicine, describes in the Lancet long-term success in four teenage girls who received vaginal organs that were engineered with their own cells.

“This pilot study is the first to demonstrate that vaginal organs can be constructed in the lab and used successfully in humans,” said Atala. “This may represent a new option for patients who require vaginal reconstructive surgeries. In addition, this study is one more example of how regenerative medicine strategies can be applied to a variety of tissues and organs.”

The girls in the study were born with Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser (MRKH) syndrome, a rare genetic condition in which the vagina and uterus are underdeveloped or absent. The treatment could also potentially be applied to patients with vaginal cancer or injuries, according to the researchers.

The girls were between 13 and 18 years old at the time of the surgeries, which were performed between June 2005 and October 2008. Data from annual follow-up visits show that even up to eight years after the surgeries, the organs had normal function. 

“Tissue biopsies, MRI scans and internal exams using magnification all showed that the engineered vaginas were similar in makeup and function to native tissue, said Atlantida-Raya Rivera, lead author and director of the HIMFG Tissue Engineering Laboratory at the MRKH in Mexico City, where the surgeries were performed.

In addition, the patients’ responses to a Female Sexual Function Index questionnaire showed they had normal sexual function after the treatment, including desire and pain-free intercourse.

The organ structures were engineered using muscle and epithelial cells (the cells that line the body’s cavities) from a small biopsy of each patient’s external genitals. In a Good Manufacturing Practices facility, the cells were extracted from the tissues, expanded and then placed on a biodegradable material that was hand-sewn into a vagina-like shape. These scaffolds were tailor-made to fit each patient.

About five to six weeks after the biopsy, surgeons created a canal in the patient’s pelvis and sutured the scaffold to reproductive structures. Previous laboratory and clinical research in Atala’s lab has shown that once cell-seeded scaffolds are implanted in the body, nerves and blood vessels form and the cells expand and form tissue. At the same time the scaffolding material is being absorbed by the body, the cells lay down materials to form a permanent support structure – gradually replacing the engineered scaffold with a new organ.

Followup testing on the lab-engineered vaginas showed the margin between native tissue and the engineered segments was indistinguishable and that the scaffold had developed into tri-layer vaginal tissue.

Current treatments for MRHK syndrome include dilation of existing tissue or reconstructive surgery to create new vaginal tissue. A variety of materials can be used to surgically construct a new vagina – from skin grafts to tissue that lines the abdominal cavity. However, these substitutes often lack a normal muscle layer and some patients can develop a narrowing or contracting of the vagina. 

The researchers say that with conventional treatments, the overall complication rate is as high as 75 percent in pediatric patients, with the need for vaginal dilation due to narrowing being the most common complication.

Before beginning the pilot clinical study, Atala’s team evaluated lab-built vaginas in mice and rabbits beginning in the early 1990s. In these studies, scientists discovered the importance of using cells on the scaffolds. Atala’s team used a similar approach to engineer replacement bladders that were implanted in nine children beginning in 1998, becoming the first in the world to implant laboratory-grown organs in humans. The team has also successfully implanted lab-engineered urine tubes (urethras) into young boys.

The team said the current study is limited because of its size, and that it will be important to gain further clinical experience with the technique and to compare it with established surgical procedures.

Co-researchers were James J. Yoo, M.D., Ph.D., and Shay Soker, Ph.D., Wake Forest Baptist, and Diego R. Esquiliano M.D., Reyna Fierro-Pastrana P.hD., Esther Lopez-Bayghen Ph.D., Pedro Valencia M.D., and Ricardo Ordorica-Flores, M.D.,Children’s Hospital Mexico Federico Gomez Metropolitan Autonomous University, Mexico.

Finally, a Way to Authenticate Premium Chocolate

Testing premium chocolate for authenticity could help ensure people get what they pay for.IMAGE CREDIT: ANDRÉ KARWATH AKA AKA, WIKIMEDIA COMMONS

For some people, nothing can top a morsel of luxuriously rich, premium chocolate. But until now, other than depending on their taste buds, chocolate connoisseurs had no way of knowing whether they were getting what they paid for

In the American Chemical Society’s Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, scientists are reporting, for the first time, a method to authenticate the varietal purity and origin of cacao beans, the source of chocolate’s main ingredient, cocoa.

Dapeng Zhang and colleagues note that lower-quality cacao beans often get mixed in with premium varieties on their way to becoming chocolate bars, truffles, sauces and liqueurs. But the stakes for policing the chocolate industry are high. It’s a multi-billion dollar global enterprise, and in some places, it’s as much art as business. There’s also a conservation angle to knowing whether products are truly what confectioners claim them to be. The ability to authenticate premium and rare varieties would encourage growers to maintain cacao biodiversity rather than depend on the most abundant and easiest to grow trees. Researchers have found ways to verify through genetic testing the authenticity of many other crops, including cereals, fruits, olives, tea and coffee, but those methods aren’t suitable for cacao beans. Zhang’s team wanted to address this challenge.

Applying the most recent developments in cacao genomics, they were able to identify a small set of DNA markers called SNPs (pronounced “snips”) that make up unique fingerprints of different cacao species. The technique works on single cacao beans and can be scaled up to handle large samples quickly. “To our knowledge, this is the first authentication study in cacao using molecular markers,” the researchers state.

The authors acknowledge funding from the Agricultural Research Service, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and a financial gift from the Lindt and Sprüngli chocolate company through the World Cocoa Foundation.

Dino Eggs Shape Easter Eggs

The pale gray eggs are from birds, the darker gray eggs are from dinosaurs. Most Easter eggs, as shown on the right, are similar in shape to bird's eggs, but some are closer to the eggs of dinosaurs. The Easter egg on the left is particularly close to the newly described egg Sankofa.MARK PURNELL, UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER

Research by paleontologists in Spain and the UK suggests that not all Easter eggs come from the same "parent" species; some could be from dinosaurs, including a new species from the Pyrenees

An international group of researchers has helped to determine that dinosaurs have shaped the Easter eggs we buy in the high street.

Scientists investigating whether 70 million-year-old fossil eggs found in the Pyrenees were laid by birds, or their dinosaur ancestors, have published their findings in the current issue of the journal Palaeontology.

And researchers from the University of Leicester have extended the study further by comparing Easter egg shapes to those of birds' and dino eggs.

The authors of the Pyrenees research, Nieves Lopez-Martinez of the Universidad Complutense of Madrid and Enric Vicens of the Universitat Autonoma of Barcelona, compared the shape of the fossil eggs with various dinosaur and modern bird eggs:

"We found that different species have different shaped eggs, and that the eggs of dinosaurs are not the same shape as the eggs of birds," said Enric Vicens.

In the scientific analysis, a mathematical formula was used to determine and describe all possible egg shapes, and real eggs were then plotted into this "egg morphospace"; in simple terms, as Vicens points out "dinosaur eggs tend to be more elongate and less rounded than birds eggs.

"Dinosaur eggs also tend to be more symmetrical with less distinction between the blunt and the more pointed end," Vicens added.

A small additional project carried out at the University of Leicester in the UK reveals that Easter egg shape varies considerably more than would be expected if they all came from the same parent species.

Professor Mark Purnell of the University of Leicester Department of Geology, and a council member of the Palaeontological Association, publishers of the research on the Spanish fossil eggs study, said: "Where do Easter eggs come from? At face value this is a simple question, but any parent trying to provide an answer this Easter might struggle to come up with a satisfactory response. According to many, the eggs are delivered by the Easter Bunny, but that doesn't really address the question; where does the Easter Bunny get them from? A quick search of the Internet reveals a confusing range of rumour and speculation – could the Easter Bunny really be a hare? Are Easter eggs from hare's nests (and are these really plover nests?) Or are the eggs just symbols of pagan gods?

The colored image shows the structure of the new dinosaur egg shell, photographed using polarized light. The shell is about a quarter millimeter thick.OTTO KALIN AND THE PALAEONTOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION"Many of the smaller eggs to be found commonly on the UK High Street are very similar in shape to hen's eggs, providing strong clues to their original source. Others are more similar in shape to Condor eggs.

"Perhaps more surprisingly a few eggs are closer in shape to those of dinosaurs, with one in particular being the same shape as the 70 million year old dinosaur egg, Sankofa pyrenaica, described by the Spanish team".

According to Professor Darla Zelenitsky of the University of Calgary, an expert on dinosaurs and their eggs who was not involved in either study "It is really exciting to find these additional links between extinct dinosaurs and living birds - birds are living dinosaurs so it makes perfect sense that their eggs share such similarities." She goes on to note that "Palaeontologists have long suggested that small early mammals might have raided the nests of dinosaurs. Generally, the idea is that they stole the eggs for food, but if the evidence of this Easter egg research is reliable, perhaps early mammals had more playful and colourful motives."

The palaeontological research of Lopez-Martinez and Vicens resulted in a handy diagram showing the range of egg shapes in birds and their dinosaur ancestors. So to answer the question of where your Easter eggs come from, simply compare the shape of your eggs to those in the diagram. (Diagram available from pressoffice@le.ac.uk or via Mark Purnell at map2@le.ac.uk)

THE MAYO CLINIC'S NEW DOCTOR-IN-AN-IPHONE

For approximately $50 a month, the Mayo Clinic is offering unlimited access to the famed hospital's nurses through a smartphone app. The Mayo Clinic partnered with Better, a California-based health technology startup, to launch the new subscription-based app. The app is not covered by insurance but offers real-time, 24/7 health care assistance. Think of it as a mobile WebMD--on steroids.

Along with real-time video chats with Mayo Clinic nurses, the new service also includes personally-tailored health information culled from Mayo Clinic databases, a “symptom checker” that incorporate's individual user's health histories, and access to a personal medical concierge who can provide more information or schedule patients' doctor appointments. The app costs $49.95 a month per household and is compliant with federal health privacy regulations.

"Our culture of learning, innovation, and the desire to find answers has allowed Mayo to remain at the forefront of health and wellness, and we want to extend this expertise to people anywhere," said Paul Limburg of Mayo Clinic Global Business Solutions in a press release. "People consistently tell us they want more convenient access to Mayo Clinic knowledge. We collaborated with and invested in Better to create a powerful way for people to connect with Mayo Clinic in their homes and communities, wherever they are."

Concierge medicine could also be a potential new revenue stream for the Mayo Clinic. Fast Company has previously covered New York-based medical concierge service Sherpaa and Oscar, a new health insurer which tailors its products for web and mobile use. Because apps and subscription services are largely outside of the scope of FDA regulations, they are a potential moneymaker for health-minded businesses and entrepreneurs, as the cost of releasing a health-related personal concierge or smartphone application is far less than a comparable standalone product, which requires far greater fees for the FDA process.

Better App, Available on iOS

Better founder Geoffrey Clapp was previously an executive at telemedicine pioneerHealth Hero Network; his new company was launched with $5 million from venture capital fund The Social + Capital Partnership and the Mayo Clinic itself. The Mayo Clinic's Global Business Solutions wing has been actively building partnerships with everything from benefits providers to a variety of software developers.

The Mayo Clinic is entering a crowded market of smartphone-based concierge medicine firms. Beyond Sherpaa, there's also Grand Rounds, Stat Doctors, Doctor on Demand, and even a free app for Canadians, Medeo, which offers subsidized concierge medicine services via smartphones for residents of British Columbia.

For Better, the Mayo Clinic, and other concierge medicine providers, the real (and unanswered) question is just how much of a market for their services really exists via smartphone apps.

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