воскресенье, 30 апреля 2023 г.

How the European Map Has Changed Over 2,400 Years

 



How the European Map Has Changed Over 2,400 Years

The history of Europe is breathtakingly complex. While there are rare exceptions like Andorra and Portugal, which have had remarkably static borders for hundreds of years, jurisdiction over portions of the continent’s landmass have changed hands innumerable times.

Today’s video comes to us from YouTube channel Cottereau, and it shows the evolution of European map borders starting from 400 BC. Empires rise and fall, invasions sweep across the continent, and modern countries slowly begin to take shape (with the added bonus of an extremely dramatic instrumental).

Below are nine highlights and catalysts that shifted the dividing lines of the European map:

146 BC – A Year of Conquest

146 BC was a year of conquest and expansion for the Roman Republic. The fall of Carthage left the Romans in control of territory in North Africa, and the ransack and destruction of the Greek city-state of Corinth also kickstarted an era of Roman influence in that region. These decisive victories paved the way for the Roman Empire’s eventual domination of the Mediterranean.

117 AD – Peak Roman Empire

The peak of the Roman Empire is one of the more dramatic moments shown on this animated European map. At its height, under Trajan, the Roman Empire was a colossal 1.7 million square miles (quite a feat in an era without motorized vehicles and modern communication tools). This enormous empire remained mostly intact until 395, when it was irreparably split into Eastern and Western regions.


370 AD – The Arrival of the Huns

Spurred on by severe drought conditions in Central Asia, the Huns reached Europe and found a Roman Empire weakened by currency debasement, economic instability, overspending, and increasing incursions from rivals along its borders.

The Huns waged their first attack on the Eastern Roman Empire in 395, but it was not until half a century later—under the leadership of Attila the Hun—that hordes pushed deeper into Europe, sacking and razing cities along the way. The Romans would later get their revenge when they attacked the quarreling Goths and Huns, bouncing the latter out of Central Europe.

1241 – The Mongol Invasion of Europe

In the mid-13th century, the “Golden Horde” led by grandsons of Genghis Khan, roared into Russia and Eastern Europe sacking cities along the way. Facing invasion from formidable Mongol forces, central European princes temporarily placed their regional conflicts aside to defend their territory. Though the Mongols were slowly pushed eastward, they loomed large on the fringes of Europe until almost the 16th century.

1362 – Lithuania

Today, Lithuania is one of Europe’s smallest countries, but at its peak in the middle ages, it was one of the largest states on the continent. A pivotal moment for Lithuania came after a decisive win at the Battle of Blue Waters. This victory stifled the expansion of the Golden Horde, and brought present-day Ukraine into its sphere of influence.

1648 – Kleinstaaterei

The end of the Holy Roman Empire highlights the extreme territorial fragmentation in Germany and neighboring regions, in an era referred to as Kleinstaaterei.


Even as coherent nation states formed around it, the Holy Roman Empire and its remnants wouldn’t coalesce until Germany rose from the wreckage of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. Unification helped position Germany as a major power, and by 1900 the country had the largest economy in Europe.

1919 – The Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire—a fixture in Eastern Europe for hundreds of years—was in its waning years by the beginning of the 20th century. The empire had ceded territory in two costly wars with Italy and Balkan states, and by the time the dust cleared on WWI, the borders of the newly minted nation of Turkey began at the furthest edge of continental Europe.

1942 – Expanding and Contracting Germany

At the furthest extent of Axis territory in World War II, Germany and Italy controlled a vast portion of continental Europe. The map below shows occupied land and areas of influence at the height of Germany’s territorial expansion.


After the war, Germany again became fragmented into occupation zones—this time, overseen by the United States, France, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. Germany would not be made whole again until 1990, when a weakening Soviet Union loosened its grip on East Germany.


1991 – Soviet Dissolution

In the decades following WWII, the political boundaries of the European map remained relatively stable—that is, until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Almost overnight, the country’s entire western border splintered into independent nations. When the dust settled, there were 15 breakaway republics, six of which were in Europe.






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суббота, 22 апреля 2023 г.

Шкала силы ужалений

 

Жало осы с капелькой яда на кончике


Шкала силы ужалений Шмидта

Шкала Шмидта, или Шкала силы ужалений Шмидта (англ. Schmidt Sting Pain Index) — шкала силы ужалений жалящих перепончатокрылых (отряд Hymenoptera), показывающая уровень воздействия на человека и испытываемых людьми болевых ощущений. Названа по имени американского энтомолога Джастина Шмидта (Bee Research Center, Southwestern Biological Institute, Тусон, Аризона), многие работы которого посвящены ужалениям ос и пчёл.

В сентябре 2015 года Шмидт был удостоен Шнобелевской премии по физиологии и энтомологии совместно с Майклом Смитом за их исследования в области Hymenoptera[1].

Synoeca surinama, Paraponera clavata, Pepsis, Hemipepsis, Vespa mandarinia

История

В первой своей статье по этой теме Джастин Шмидт в 1984 году[2] предпринял попытку систематизировать и сравнить гемолитические особенности яда насекомых. Шмидт неоднократно совершенствовал свою шкалу, включая работу, опубликованную в 1990 году, в которой классифицированы укусы 78 видов из 41 рода перепончатокрылых насекомых (Hymenoptera), прежде всего ос, пчёл и муравьёв[3] и кульминацией и итогом его работы которой стала книга, опубликованная в 2016 году. При этом были описаны многие детали последствий таких ужалений[4].

Шкала ужалений

Шкала силы ужалений Джастина Шмидта при укусах перепончатокрылых состоит из уровней, варьирующихся от 1 до 4, причем 4 — самый болезненный. Однако укусы насекомых, которые ощущаются совершенно по-разному, могут быть отнесены к одному и тому же уровню. Поэтому более поздние версии шкалы всегда включают краткое описание его опыта при укусе каждого вида насекомых[5].

Эволюция от болезненных к токсичным ужалениям

Шкала силы ужалений Шмидта возникла в результате реализации более крупной гипотезы: эволюция социальности у перепончатокрылых насекомых (Hymenoptera) зависела от эволюции яда, который был одновременно болезненным и токсичным[5]. Боль — это сигнал о повреждениях в организме, но молекулы, которые вызывают боль, и молекулы, которые являются токсичными и активно вызывают повреждения, — это не одно и то же. Хотя болевой сигнал действует как отпугивающее средство, разумные хищники при повторном воздействии узнают о нечестности этого сигнала — о том, что никакого реального ущерба не наносится[4]. Для ранних Hymenoptera, которые были преимущественно одиночными, одна только боль позволила бы им спастись. Кроме того, одиночные насекомые не обеспечивают хищникам высокую энергетическую награду, и поэтому хищники не тратят значительных усилий на охоту на них. Однако с развитием социальности, когда многие Hymenoptera объединяются в колонии, гнёзда становятся богаты питательными веществами и, следовательно, достойной целью[9]. Если бы не было защиты, хищники сожрали бы беззащитное общество, оставив лишь несколько выживших особей[4]. Таким образом, социальность не была бы выгодна. Для того чтобы социальность развилась, Hymenoptera нуждались в защите, помимо болезненного жала, чтобы защитить всю свою колонию. Их жало было рекламой ущерба, и токсичность развивалась как его истина. Имея токсичное жало и, таким образом, способность защищаться от хищников, Hymenoptera смогли продвинуться к социальности и связанным с ней эволюционным преимуществам совместного воспитания молоди, индивидуальной специализации, межколониальной коммуникации и хранения пищи[9].

Чтобы подойти к изучению этой эволюционной связи между токсичностью и социальностью, Шмидт признал, что необходима количественная мера, с помощью которой можно было бы оценить болезненность укусов. Анализ токсичности уже хорошо охарактеризован и может быть оценён количественно, но без индекса боли от ужаления, или шкалы Шмидта, не было бы способа связать степень социальности с уровнем боли, и поэтому эта гипотеза не могла бы быть изучена[10].

Шкала силы ужалений Старра

Жалящий индекс Старра (англ. Starr sting pain scale) — это шкала силы ужалений жалящих перепончатокрылых (отряд Hymenoptera), в зависимости от силы действия их на человека и испытываемых болевых ощущений. Назван по имени энтомолога Christopher Starr (Starr, 1985)[12].

Шкала ужалений

1-й уровень низшая степень болевых ощущений, 4-й — высшая

РейтингНасекомые
1.0Южный огненный муравей (англ. Southern fire ant, Solenopsis xyloni, род Solenopsis)
2.0Медоносная пчела (англ. Honey bee),
Африканская пчела (убийца) (англ. Africanized bee),
Шмели (англ. Bumble bee),
Веспины (англ. Yellowjacket)
3.0Осы-немки (англ. Velvet ant),
Polistinae (англ. Paper wasp)
4.0Pepsis (англ. Pepsis wasp, семейство Дорожные осы (Pompilidae),
Paraponera clavata (англ. Bullet ant)

Примечания

  1. ↑ 'Universal urination duration' wins Ig Nobel prize, BBC News (18 September 2015). Архивировано 1 февраля 2023 года. Дата обращения: 1 февраля 2023.
  2. ↑ Schmidt, J. O., Blum, M. S., and Overal, W. L. 1984. Hemolytic activities of stinging insect venoms. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 1:155–160.
  3. ↑ Schmidt, Justin O. Hymenoptera Venoms: Striving Toward the Ultimate Defense Against Vertebrates // Insect Defenses: Adaptive Mechanisms and Strategies of Prey and Predators / D. L. Evans ; J. O. Schmidt. — Albany, New York : State University of New York Press, 1990. — P. 387–419. — ISBN 0-88706-896-0.
  4. ↑ Перейти обратно:1 2 3 Schmidt, Justin. The Sting of the Wild. — Baltimore, Maryland : Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016. — ISBN 978-1-4214-1929-9.
  5. ↑ Перейти обратно:1 2 The Connoisseur of Pain, The New York Times Magazine (18 August 2016). Архивировано 1 февраля 2023 года. Дата обращения: 1 февраля 2023.
  6. ↑ Яд огненных муравьев Solenopsis invicta. Дата обращения: 2 мая 2010. Архивировано 20 октября 2009 года.
  7. ↑ Jacks of Science " Blog Archive " Species of the Week #1: The Tarantula Hawk. Дата обращения: 21 апреля 2010. Архивировано из оригинала 17 ноября 2011 года.
  8. ↑ Berenbaum, May. «A Stinging Commentary Архивная копия от 7 мая 2010 на Wayback Machine», American Entomologist, v. 49 n. 2, pp. 68—69.
  9. ↑ Перейти обратно:1 2 Schmidt, Justin (22 March 2014). “Evolutionary responses of solitary and social Hymenoptera to predation by primates and overwhelmingly powerful vertebrate predators”. Journal of Human Evolution. 71: 12—19. DOI:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.07.018. PMID 24666602.
  10. ↑ Oh, Sting, Where Is Thy Death? (10 August 2009). Дата обращения: 7 мая 2017.
  11.  Starr, C.K. A simple pain scale for field comparison of Hymenopteran stings (англ.) // Journal of Entomological Science : journal. — 1985. — Vol. 20, no. 2. — P. 225—231.
  12. ↑ E. Hoyt, T. Schultz. Insect Lives, Stories of Mystery and Romance from a Hidden World (англ.). — 2002.
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вторник, 18 апреля 2023 г.

Printable Household Items List

 


How do you keep your household items in a minimalist home?

There are a variety of smart methods to collect items at home, which can be useful if you have a lot of stuff or your living space is limited. Because the amount of space available in a small house is restricted, storing products in a minimalist home needs skill. You must figure out how to store products or items without crowding the space. As a result, here are some ideas for keeping things tidy in a minimalist home. Rearrange the Storage Rack first. The simplest technique to expand storage possibilities in the kitchen is to rearrange the height of storage shelves. Extra shelves can be added to allow smaller items to be gathered together and more vertical room to be provided. Second, use the inside of the closet door for your use. Placing storage space on the inside of a closet door might be a clever solution for storing items in a minimalist home. Third, make use of wall fragments. If you don't have enough space for storage in your minimalist home, you can connect a minimalist design wall shelf to the wall. At home, a collection of books and magazines can be kept on installed wooden wall shelves. Finally, show off a built-in storage box. This is an interesting idea to store items at home by making use of any space in a simple minimalist home. Presenting a multipurpose built-in storage box is one of them. A built-in storage box can indeed be placed in a modern minimalist bedroom to keep your belongings organized.

Why household items are important?

Products that we bought that can be used in our homes are known as household items. Apart from personal property and vehicles, they usually cover all of our material belongings. Kitchen supplies, furniture, garments, bedding, books, and tools are just a few examples. Furthermore, some individuals do not consider clothes to be part of this category because it is not something we use in our houses. Firms such as insurance companies, on the other hand, do. Meanwhile, the word refers to assets that are included in our total wealth despite their lack of cash. A person's personal wealth is calculated by subtracting their assets from their liabilities, or everything they own from all they possess. Then there's the definition of household items as products that family members acquire and enjoy in their homes. The term 'household' refers to both the physical structure of a home as well as the people that live there. When economists talk about 'total spending,' for example, they're referring to people. They are specifically referring to each group of persons who share a house. In the meantime, items are referred to as products, which are goods that people create or develop and then offer to sell. As a result, a household is a social unit made up of people that share a residence. In a typical nuclear family, adults who share the rent, a single person, and so on may help compensate a household. The products have their own significance in determining whether or not a person's basic needs are met.




What household items list that you need to collect when you are moving home, especially for kitchen essentials?

Living in a new home may be both fun and challenging. Whether you're a first-time buyer or moving, ensuring you have all of the necessary materials would be an important part of making the process move smoothly and can be quite enjoyable. However, keeping track of everything you'll need for a new home can be challenging, especially when so much depends on what you already have and what comes standard with your new home. Especially for the kitchen. You may need to modify the 'white goods' (fridge, washing machine, and dishwasher) or replace the basics, such as a stove, based according to how trendy the kitchen in your new home is. Aside from that, there are a few things you should know such items like table, chairs, kettle, rubbish bin. Toaster, kitchen roll, sponge, dish-washing soap, and drying rack. In addition, you’ll also need a wide range of kitchen utensils, including cutlery, crockery, glasses, knives, can opener, baking tray, pans, spoon, spatula, bowl, and serving platter, oven gloves, and even colander. There are several various items that you will need for your new home, but they can be obtained over time. It's crucial to start with the essentials - do not even buy too many things before you move because you can end up wasting money on stuff that isn't good for your new house. All of these things can easily add up in price! Furthermore, a smart suggestion is to record videos of the house you'll be moving into so that you can revisit it in the weeks leading up to the move – this will give you a better idea of how much area you'll have and how much you'll have to buy.

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вторник, 11 апреля 2023 г.

Scripps Research scientists develop new technique for studying mitochondria

 


Advance offers a new way of investigating diseases—including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and different cancers—where mitochondria are disrupted.


LA JOLLA, CA—An advanced imaging-based method from scientists at Scripps Research offers a new way of studying mitochondria, which are best known as the “powerhouses” of cells.

In their report on February 14, 2023, in the Journal of Cell Biology, the scientists described a set of techniques that enables the imaging and quantification of even subtle structural changes inside mitochondria, and the correlation of those changes with other processes ongoing in cells.

Mitochondria are involved not only in energy production, but also in several other critical cellular functions, including cell division and cell-preserving responses to various types of stress. Mitochondrial dysfunctions have been observed in a host of diseases including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s disease and different cancers, and researchers are eager to develop treatments that can reverse these dysfunctions. But the scientific tools for studying the fine details of mitochondria structure have been limited.

“We now have a powerful new toolkit for detecting and quantifying structural, and thus functional, differences in mitochondria—for example, in diseased versus healthy states,” says study senior author Danielle Grotjahn, PhD, assistant professor in the Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology at Scripps Research.

The co-first authors of the study were Grotjahn lab members Benjamin Barad, PhD, a postdoctoral research associate, and Michaela Medina, a PhD candidate.

Mitochondria are one of the many membrane-bound molecular machines, or “organelles,” that dwell within the cells of plants and animals. Typically numbering in the hundreds to thousands per cell, mitochondria have their own small genomes, and have a distinctive structure with an outer membrane and a wavy inner membrane where key biochemical reactions occur. Scientists know that the appearances of mitochondrial structures can change dramatically depending on what the mitochondrion is doing, or what stresses are present in the cell. These structural changes therefore can be highly useful markers of cell conditions, though until now there hasn’t been a good method for detecting and quantifying them.

In the study, Grotjahn’s team put together a computational toolkit to process imaging data from a microscopy technique called cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET)—which essentially images biological samples in three dimensions, using electrons instead of light. The researchers’ “surface morphometrics toolkit,” as they call it, enables the detailed mapping and measurement of the structural elements of individual mitochondria. This includes the bends of the inner membrane and the gaps between membranes—all potentially useful markers of important mitochondrial and cellular events.

“It allows us essentially to turn the beautiful 3-D pictures of mitochondria we can get from cryo-ET into sensitive, quantitative measurements—which we can potentially use to help identify the detailed mechanisms of diseases, for example,” Barad says.

The team demonstrated the toolkit by using it to map structural details on mitochondria when their cells are subjected to endoplasmic reticulum stress—a type of cell stress that is seen often in neurodegenerative diseases. They observed that key structural features such as the curvature of the inner membrane, or the minimum distance between inner and outer membranes, changed measurably when under this stress.

With their successful, proof-of-principle demonstrations of the new toolkit, the Grotjahn lab will now use it for studying in more detail how mitochondria respond to cellular stresses or other changes induced by diseases, toxins, infections and even pharmaceuticals.

“We can compare the effects on mitochondria in cells treated with a drug versus the effects on untreated mitochondria, for example,” Medina says. “And this approach is not limited to mitochondria—we can also use it to study other organelles within cells.”

“Quantifying organellar ultrastructure in cryo-electron tomography using a surface morphometrics pipeline,” was co-authored by Benjamin Barad, Michaela Medina, Daniel Fuentes, Luke Wiseman, and Danielle Grotjahn, all of Scripps Research.

The research was funded in part by the National Institutes of Health (R01NS095892, RF1NS125674) and the American Cancer Society.

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