Bacteria in the sky may help to make it rain

Here's how they do it.

By Veronique Greenwood

PSEUDOMONAS SYRINGAE

This species of bacteria can cause ice to form, even at temperatures that are warmer than freezing.

James Kremer and Sheng Yang He via Howard Hughes Medical Institute

Microbes are everywhere—in your gut, on your skin, even in the sky. Along with water vapor and particles, clouds also contain living bacteria. And certain airborne species have a superpower: They can cause water to freeze into ice, which in turn prompts the heavens to open. Once frozen granules form around bits of dust, minerals, or tiny organisms, they fall, melting on the way down to become raindrops or forming flakes to make snow. This means the little life-forms might contribute to rainfall—but how much?

“If you loaded up a cloud with these microbes, it would create freezing and the processes that lead to precipitation,” confirms University of Florida’s Brent Christner, who studies atmospheric bacteria. “The unknown factor is, are there enough of them up there to matter?” Christner and other researchers are sending weather balloons and planes on sampling missions to try to answer the question—and shed light on what these citizens of the sky get out of the deal. They might use clouds to travel long distances before raining down on fresh new habitats.

In the image below, scroll over each red dot to learn more about the mechanisms behind this stormy process.

Illustration by Valerio Pellegrini

This article originally appeared in the Extreme Weather issue of Popular Science.

The Water in Your Glass Might Be Older Than the Sun

The water you drink is older than the planet you’re standing on. CreditBiwa Studio/Getty Images

By NICHOLAS ST. FLEUR

Every Friday, we’ll offer a Trilobite talking point to help you bring a bit more science to your weekend conversations.

Earth is old. The sun is old. But do you know what may be even older than both? Water.

It’s a mystery how the world became awash in it. But one prevailing theory says that water originated on our planet from ice specks floating in a cosmic cloud before our sun was set ablaze, more than 4.6 billion years ago.

As much as half of all the water on Earth may have come from that interstellar gas according to astrophysicists’ calculations. That means the same liquid we drink and that fills the oceans may be millions of years older than the solar system itself.

The thinking goes that some of the ancient ice survived the solar system’s chaotic creation and came to Earth. To demonstrate that, researchers analyzed water molecules in oceans for indicators of their ancient past.

The clue comes in the form of something known as “heavy water.” Water, as you know, is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. But some water molecules contain hydrogen’s chunky twin, deuterium. (It contains a neutron in its nucleus, whereas regular hydrogen does not.)

Photo

An illustration of how ancient water in the interstellar cloud drenched the solar system as the sun and planets formed. CreditBill Saxton, via, National Science Foundation, Associated Universities, Inc, National Radio Astronomy Observatory

Deuterium-rich water is found on other planets and moons, even here on Earth, but researchers are not sure where it came from. One idea is that much of the heavy water formed in the interstellar cloud and then traveled across the solar system.

Using a computer model, the scientists showed in a 2014 paper that the billions-of-years-old ice molecules could have survived the sun’s violent radiation blasts, and gone on to bathe a forming Earth and its cousins.

They concluded that remnants of that ancient ice remain scattered across the solar system: on the moon, in comets, at Mercury’s poles, in the remains of Mars’ melts, on Jupiter’s moon Europa — and even in your water bottle. Now that’s something to raise your glass to.

There are 39 Kinds of Snowflakes

Shaunacy Ferro

Every special little snowflake may be unique, but they’re not all that different from each other, at least at the molecular level.  Depending on the temperature and humidity at which they form, snow crystals form into different shapes. Scientists have categorized the crystal structures of snowflakes into 39 different categories, including columns, irregular particles, and more, all of which are visualized in the graphic above by chemistry teacher and science infographic wiz Andry Brunning of Compound Interest.

As scientists find out more about crystal structures, the types of known snowflakes out there have increased. There were only 21 categories of crystal shapes in the 1930s, but in recent years, that number has ballooned up to 121 subtypes—you’ll have to look at the expanded version of the graphic to see those (along the bottom of the image). But those are pretty fine-grained definitions. There are 39 intermediate classifications of basic snowflake shapes, including several irregularly shaped forms of solid precipitation. 

You may not be able to tell a column crystal from a rimed crystal with the naked eye, but you can definitely throw out a few of these categorizations to impress people while you’re snowed in this weekend.

Year in review: Best evidence yet for water on Mars

SALT STORY  Seasonal water flows might have created dark streaks on Mars’ slopes, as seen in this computer-generated view of Hale Crater.

Red Planet’s slopes ooze brine, data from Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed

BY 

ALEXANDRA WITZE

There’s water on Mars. Yes, again.

In the most highly publicized Mars discovery of the year, NASA announced that its Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft had spotted hydrated salt minerals on the Red Planet (SN: 10/31/15, p. 17). The salty streaks appear in the same places as dark, hillside marks that lengthen and shrink with the Martian seasons. Brine probably oozes from the steep slopes, scientists concluded.

Water on Mars has been reported many times in the past, with each discovery adding fresh nuance to scientists’ picture of the planet. The brine finding is the most detailed evidence yet that water flows on the planet’s surface today. And liquid water — no matter the saltiness — has exciting implications for whether life could exist on Mars.

Chemical evidence for Martian habitability, both past and present, is piling up elsewhere as well. The Curiosity rover, which has been rolling across the planet since 2012, identified a form of nitrogen in Martian rocks that, on Earth, is used to construct biological molecules (SN Online: 3/23/15). Studies of six Martian meteorites, blasted into space by asteroid impacts, reveal that they contain methane, which serves as a food source for microbes on Earth (SN Online: 6/16/15).

Knowing whether there really is life on Mars — or ever was — will have to wait until at least 2020, when NASA plans to launch a rover to collect and store rocks that would eventually be flown back to Earth for analysis. In the meantime, scientists’ freshest views of Mars are from the sky. The MAVEN spacecraft, flying high through the Martian air, has spotted glowing auroras and puzzling dust clouds (SN: 4/18/15, p. 15). And it has measured, more precisely than ever, how powerful solar storms eroded away Mars’ atmosphere (SN: 12/12/15, p. 32), a process that, over billions of years, has caused the Red Planet to lose most of its air. 

The ‘Drinkable Book’ Can Literally Save Your Life

By Carl Engelking


The drinkable book’s pages can be torn out and used as filters. (Credit: Photo courtesy Brian Gartside/Drinkable Book)

Sure, a good book can forever change your perspective on life, but one book can literally save your life.

According to the World Health Organization, 3.4 million people die each year due to health issues stemming from unsanitary water. To combat this alarming trend, scientists are working to produce and distribute “drinkable books” to people living in third-world countries. But this isn’t your ordinary book: Each page can be torn out and used to turn sewage into drinkable water.

(Credit: Photo courtesy Brian Gartside/Drinkable Book)

Drink Up

The “drinkable book” in the brainchild of Theresa Dankovich, from Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, who was researching a simple, inexpensive way to sanitize water. She developed “pAge drinking paper,” which is a sturdy sheet of paper loaded with silver and copper nanoparticles that kill dangerous microbes living in dirty water. The nano-paper eliminates 99 percent of bacteria living in the dirtiest water, and the resulting water contains metal levels well below U.S. guidelines for safe drinking water.

Dankovich tested her filter papers on 25 different water sources in five countries with success. She unveiled the results of her project at theAmerican Chemical Society’s national meeting this week.

Dankovich has teamed up with the nonprofit organization WATERisLIFE to mass-produce books that are filled with this specialized paper. Each “drinkable book” contains information in English and the local language about water safety, as well as filtering instructions.

A single sheet of paper can purify up to 26 gallons of water, and a single book can supply a person’s water needs for up to four years.

Scaling Up

Now, the goal is to raise funds in order to scale up production of the books. Dankovich, to this point, has hand-produced each book in a church kitchen – it’s a long process. Dankovich has made about 50 books, which took over 60 hours for the paper treatment and drying process. WATERisLIFE is working on securing production funds to distribute the life-saving books around the world.

For the sake of clean water, we hope drinkable books become a global bestseller.

They Saw Something VERY Strange On The Water… So They Took A Closer Look

Two photographer partners Joost van Uffelen and Sandy van de Water were on a photography tour in Mexico and were surfing in the sunny weather. The same morning, both the photographers were busy capturing dolphins on their camera. After successfully photographing dolphins, they thought of going ahead and exploring the island. Thus, they cruised to the other side of the island.

However, what they saw while cruising will leave you absolutely stunned, just like how we were when we saw the video for the first time.

Go on and have a closer look at the video and you would surely be taken in for a surprise.

Share the video among your friends on social networking sites so that even they get to watch this amazing video.

Tap Water: What Are You Really Drinking?

Quality Water Sources

“It is estimated that in 99 percent of the US population, their fatty tissue contains one or more of the toxic chemicals found in water.” – Dr. Ronald Klatz, MD, Pres. American Academy of Anti Aging Medicine

In a previous article I mention how water can play an important role in the prevention of cancer. This article delves a little deeper into the types of water or better yet the best filtration systems in delivering quality water / hydration.

First, let’s revisit the purpose of water in our diet. Of course we all know we cannot live without it. Water is so important; that it’s presence on another planet is the single most exciting clue to the existence of life. The average adult contains 40-50 quarts / 10-13 gallons of water! Blood is 83% water, muscle 75%, brain 75%, heart 75%, bones 22%, lungs 86%, kidney 83%, and eyes 95%. [2]

All cells contain some form of nutrient fluid composed of water. These cells are floating in a sea of saline water. The extracellular (saline) fluid carries electric charges that enable the cells to communicate with each other. It transports nutrients, deliver oxygen, and removes toxic waste. They regulate temperature and prevent sticking. On a larger scale this extracellular fluid acts as a lubricant and even a cushion for joints and bones. It acts as a shock absorber for organs and glands. It quenches free radicals by binding to them and is crucial to the body’s overall capacity to repair, restore, and heal. [1]

Problems with our drinking water

Today, due to our water municipalities and use of chemicals such as chlorine, we’re rarely concerned about bacteria and parasite contamination. The use of chlorine which comes with its own set of problems (produces harmful THMs) is in part responsible for making our water safer from a biological standpoint. Trihalomethanes (THMs) a known carcinogen, are formed as a by-product predominately when chlorine is used to disinfect water for drinking. Bacteria and parasites are still an issue but much less as compared to 100 years ago. However, bacteria represent only a fraction of our modern day hazards present in our water supply.  You see our current aging water municipalities are unable to filter out all the new ever expanding chemicals entering our environment. There are more than 75,000 chemical compounds in our water with more being added daily. They come from industry, agriculture, and consumers/homes. Small doses of them in drinking water are ingested every day and no one knows what their long term effects will be. According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), nearly one million people get sick from drinking contaminated water each year with about 1,000 of those cases ending in fatalities.

Toxic Threats in our Water:

Unfortunately, our water is subject to nearly every kind of pollutant in our society. As if contamination from gasoline, parasites, chlorine, fluoride, and aging pipes were not enough, pharmaceutical drugs, pesticides, lead, asbestos, nitrates, and even radioactive waste all have an impact on our water.[1]

Water testing has shown a high level of Prozac, Ritalin, and antibiotics in our drinking water. Because people had dumped their excess prescription drugs into those body of water or had flushed them directly or through bodily waste into sewer and septic systems, where chemicals then leeched into groundwater.[3] Municipal sewage treatment plants are not engineered to remove Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) pollutants from the nations water supply. When a United States Geological Survey report was issued in 2004 documenting how prescription drugs, steroids, antibiotics, pesticides, and other synthetic chemicals are being found at alarming levels everywhere during stream and groundwater testing, federal and state environment officials made this revealing admission: Our nation’s waste water treatment plants are simply too unsophisticated to remove synthetic chemicals before water is recycled back into the environment. Nor can our municipal water treatment plants, despite the use of chlorine, neutralize all of these synthetic chemicals before we drink the tap water or bathe ourselves in it. Not only that, but most of the nation’s soft drinks and beers are made with municipal tap water, which means we are slowly and cumulatively drugging ourselves in multiple ways. [4]

Which Water is Right for You?

Some choices have been made for us such as the chlorination and fluoridation of our water supplies. However, we have options based on the level of purity, convenience, and cost. Some alternatives to tap water include:

• Bottled Water
• Charcoal / Carbon Filtered Water
• Distiller Water
• Ozone & Ultraviolet Treated Water
• Reverse Osmosis Water

Let’s take a look at some ways you can provide yourself and your family with safe and healthy water.

Bottled water comes from municipal water sources, underground springs, or artesian wells. Natural spring, especially mineral water is best known for their healing properties. Mineral water’s healing properties are associated with their high content of dissolved solids such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, silica, and bicarbonates. Some spring water is subject to ultraviolet light and a one micron filtration process to screen out giardiasis and cryptosporidium. According to the International Bottled Water Association (IBWA), there is a one in four chance that your bottled water has been drawn from municipal taps. America’s best selling bottled water is Aquafina, which is treated tap water packaged by Pepsi. Typically the water is treated with ozone, de-ionization, carbon and micron filtration, and ultraviolet light to improve quality and maintain a level of safety.

Even though the FDA has regulations which require bottled water to be processed, packaged, transported, and stored under safe and sanitary conditions; problems do arise. In 1998, the National Resource Defense Council completed a 4 year test of 103 bottled waters and found that 1/3 of them had bacteria and other chemicals exceeding industry standards. My main issue with bottled water in plastic bottles is the imparting of plastic taste. This means that some of the plastic is leaching into the product. PET / PETE a clear strong plastic is considered the most inert (not imparting taste or color). Look for a triangle under the bottle with either the number 1(PET) or 7 (polycarbonate). The quality of plastic is important.

Some Criteria for Choosing Quality Bottled Water

• Choose water that has a stable assay statistics over years.
• Buy water in glass, polycarbonate, or PET bottles.
• Know the difference between spring, mineral, and purified waters.

Pros & Cons of Charcoal Filtration

Activated charcoal is one of the best methods for extracting toxic gases, odors, and taste. Has the ability to extract all organic, hydrocarbon based pollutants such as pesticides, chlorine, THMs, and PCBs. Charcoal filtration is the most economical filtration method, which is why it is the most widely used personal filtration system.

A disadvantage is its propensity to provide a breeding ground for bacteria, and therefore the filter must be replaced regularly. This method does not remove inorganic mineral salts such as sodium, fluoride, and nitrates.

Criteria for Purchasing a Charcoal Filter

• Large amounts of densely packed charcoal
• Long filter life, preferably 400 – 1000 gallons
• Pre- filter to extend filter’s life
• Maximum contact time & reasonable flow rate
• A counter top unit that connects directly to faucet or under the sink to save space

Ultraviolet Light

Ultraviolet light purifies the water of microbes by emitting germicidal UV rays. These devices have the same dilemma of contact time and effectiveness as charcoal filtration. The longer the exposure to radiation, the more effective.

Ozone

Ozone is naturally formed when the oxygen molecule is agitated and split. Most people are familiar with ozone in our upper atmosphere. This molecule is a powerful germicide used to purify water of microbes.  It removes odors, off taste, and colors. Also oxidizes THMs, chlorine, and pesticides.

Pros & Cons of Reverse Osmosis

This method is a mechanical process by which water diffuses through a semipermeable membrane that restricts the passage of certain contaminants.

Reverse osmosis removes most pollutants including particulates, lead, mercury, radium, and uranium. It also removes off taste, odor, and colors.

However it cannot remove toxic gases, chloroform, THMs, phenol, microbes, some pesticides, and organic compounds with low molecular weight.

Typically, the unit must be installed by a plumber and requires a pre & post carbon filter. Also membrane replacement is costly.

Pros & Cons of Home Distiller

Distillation is the process of boiling water into steam and then condensing back to liquid water. This process produces the purest form of water. Distillation removes all:

• Bacteria and viruses
• Soluble inorganic salts such as fluoride, sodium, nitrates
• Organic chemicals like pesticides, PCBs, THMs
• Radionuclide’s
• Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium
• Soluble minerals such as calcium phosphorous, and magnesium

Ultimately, the water has no minerals, taste, odors, or colors after it undergoes the distillation process. The main disadvantages of such a system is the long time needed to complete the distillation process, amount of electricity used (cost), and the removal of beneficial minerals.

Criteria for Purchasing a Home Distiller

So when purchasing, consider the price and the rate (speed) of distillation.

One last point about distilled water. Avoid purchasing distilled water in plastic bottles due to its nature to leach potentially toxic compounds out of the plastic.

References:

[1] Water the Ultimate Cure by Steve Meyerowitz and Dr. F. Batmanghelidj, MD, p13

[2] For Lifelong Gains, Just Add Water. Repeat. Brody, Jane E. New York Times, July 11, 2000.

[3] The Hundred Year Lie, Randall Fitzgerald, A Plume Book, July 2007′ p4

[4] The Hundred Year Lie, Randall Fitzgerald, A Plume Book, July 2007′ p117

by Kendall Haynesworth on March 31, 2014